Before I begin, I would like to give credit to Yad Vashem, along with over 50 academics, historians and survivors, for creating a useful and informative online course for anyone to use. This blog post will reflect my research and note taking from week one. We need to understand the definition and origin of Antisemitism first in order to address this issue. Please consider that I am focusing on the changing attitudes before the modern period and exploring the origin of this issue in order to educate others.
Firstly, we need to explore the nature of hate:
Why do people hate? How is hate triggered? Is it innate for learned?
Hate is not inborn or natural, it is the process of learning and your surrounding society that affects your views. Socialising via parents, peer groups etc. can lead to differing views in the future. People tend to hate due to discriminate measures and excluding against others.
The Nature of Antisemitism
Does Antisemitism have unique characteristics that distinguish it from other prejudices and hostilities?
There are a whole range of different stereotypes, particularly focusing on the origins of the stereotypes.
These stereotypes are long established with no signs of this going away.
When did it start from religion? - Judas, silver and betrayal
The fate of Jesus's disciple, Judas Iscariot, was told through the bible that he betrayed Jesus to Jewish Chief Priests in exchange for 30 pieces of silver. Although Judas and Jesus were both Jews, Judas transformed into a personification of all Jews from the 12th Century onward. This was at a time where many Jews in Europe were pushed into unpopular rule such as usury (money lending), which was regarded as sinful at the dominant Catholic Church.
Judas became known as the archetypal traitor, a symbol of greed and heresy; he is attached to material wealth. Let's analyse this painting below:
This artwork is called the Betrayal Of Christ by Albrecht Durer (1650) from The Victoria and Albert museum.
What stands out in the painting? Which one is Judas? Look at his clothing? Does it link to Judas's stereotype?
Etymology and historical roots
What are the origins of the term 'Antisemitism'? Who coined it and why?
The term was the result of people's feelings in the 1800s. The term emerged in the 1870s where German journalist, Wilhelm Mar, coined the term, along with antisemites.
Lets break down the term 'Antisemitism' to gain a better understanding of how this term was used then:
'Anti'- This is the replacement for hatred. It seems that the antisemites were trying to portray hatred as some sort of professional ideology.
'Semit'- This is replaced for Jews/Judaism.
'Ism'- This is interpreted as a school or movement, giving a more intellectual face.
Anti-Jewish perceptions in the Greco-Roman world
What was the context for the formulation of Anti-Jewish perceptions in the Greco-Roman world?
Ancient 'Antisemitism' was evident in the Greco-Roman world. Their literature includes a number of negative statements on the Jews, from casual mockery to overt animosity.
Which term should be used to describe the negative treatments of Jews in Greco-Roman activity?
There have been a variety of suggestions of which term that describes the negative treatment of Jews. Next to Antisemitism, there is Anti Judaism and Judeophobia.
The impact of Jewish Monotheism in the Greco-Roman World
What is Monotheism?
The definition Monotheism defines the style of the religious belief that asserts the existence of only one God. Judaism does recognise the physical existence of prophets, such as Moses. Judaism, Christianity and Islam explain their monotheism in different ways.
Monotheism was portrayed as a negative, especially in the Greek world. The Greek period had whole new civilisations and differed with religion. The Jews had issues with Greek Gods as Greeks worshiped more than one God, meaning that it was alien to them. In addition, the Greeks viewed circumcision as genital mutilation.
A unique form of hate or another form of Xenophobia?
Should Anti-Jewish expressions in the Greco-Roman world be viewed as a unique form of hatred or should they be perceived as one of the various forms of Xenophobia that existed during that period?
Before I briefly talk about the ethnographic picture, let's explore what ethnography is:
It is the study and systematic recording of human cultures or descriptive work produced for such research.
There were different forms of xenophobia during the Greek and Roman period. In an ethnographic picture, there is a focus on difference. The rich lands of Egypt became the property of Rome after the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BCE, which spelled the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty that had ruled Egypt since the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE(1). The outcome was that the Egyptians blamed the Jews, hinting at a Antisemitic depiction of the Jews. This could have been due to a number of Jewish riots in Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt, voicing discontent with Roman rule and rampaging against pagan sanctuaries, or it could be that the Jews lived peacefully with the Romans, portraying them as powerful figures and a possible threat. Jewish Xenophobia has been portrayed as a kind of nervousness of Jewish behaviours.
The Early Days of Christianity
What roles do the Jews play in the perceptions of early Christianity and why?
There was a split between Jews and Christians that were called Parting of the ways. Here is Christs self-definition:
Jews
Old
Earthly
Bodily
Darkness
Evil
Christians
New
Heavenly
Spiritual
Light
Good
You can tell that Christians defined these characteristics themselves. Although Judaism was the origin of Christianity, they were viewed as evildoers.
Adversus Judaeos (Against the Jews)
Adversus Judaeos is a series of 4th Century homilies by John Chrysostom that have been circulated by many groups to foster Antisemitism. His sermons against Jews gave momentum to the idea that Jews were collectively responsible for the death of Jesus.
The Conversion of the Roman Empire
How were Jews treated and perceived under this newly Christian regime? How did the conversion of the Roman Empire affect the historical development of Antisemitism?
The Edict of Milan (113 CE)
This was established by Constantine due to his conversion to Christianity. It was supposedly from his vision or dream that he decided to take this massive change to the Roman Empire.
The Edict of Milan was an agreement which helped to establish a religious tolerance for Christians in the Roman Empire.
How does this affect the Jews?
The Jews were perceived as intolerant and responsible for the killing of Jesus. Coincidentally, Jesus's death was a Roman method for killing. However, the Romans did not want to be portrayed as the bad guys, so they used the Jews as a scapegoat.
The Augustian perception
What was St Augustians perception of the Jews and how did it affect their treatment?
Ecclesia and Synagoga statues
How are the Augustine’s perceptions of the Jews represented in these statues?
Consider how this affected the Jews then.
Anti-Judaism
What is 'Anti-Judaism' and what separates it from 'Antisemitism'?
This is a complicated answer as it can be difficult to define between the two.Let's start with the term 'Judaize'. This defines as acting like you understand how the Jews might act. For example, in Galatians, Chapter 2, verse 14, it mentions that:
There is too much emphasis on law or world.
Every Christ is always at risk at becoming Jewish.
Anti-Judaism means that you had to be on guard against the Jews within them. To place this in simpler terms, it is how you should, as a Christian or Muslim, act in the world while avoiding to act like a Jew. Anti-semitism is a form of hate, whereas Anti-Judaism is a caution or fear.
The Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, the attitudes towards Jews and Judaism was worse. There was an increase in hostility and brutality. This links with Judas's personified image of all Jews.
How did early Christian thought and perceptions of the Jews, and especially the Augustinian legacy calling of the safekeeping of Jews, morph into violent, and often murderous, actions and rhetoric?
There were increasing allegations that Jews are greedy with money and supposedly murdered Christians and children for their blood.
Most of the Western European lands, during the end of the Middle Ages, were Judenrein (free of Jews) as they expelled them:
1276- Upper Baveria.
1290- England.
1306- France.
1491- Spain and Italy.
1497- Portugal.
1499- Nuremberg.
1541- Kingdom of Naples.
Many feared that Judaism has evolved and they came into contact with other "Others", which were Muslims.
The Jewish 'other' in the Middle Ages
How did the tumultuous Middle Ages served to further establish the Jews and Judaism as the ultimate symbols of the 'other' in Western tradition?
It developed so many new uses for Judaism. The view was that if the Jew does not follow Jesus, they are the slave. This turns into a political idea: rulers don't have total power over Jews ('slaves' over the Christian). They were seen as the 'Royal Leeches or treasure'.
An example of Anti-Jewish restrictions
Canons 67 through 70 pertained to the Jews, and to a lesser extent also to the Muslims. They reflect the hostile perceptions of contemporary Judaism held by Pope Innocent III and others at the time.
Read these canons and discuss or write notes about how these canons affected the Jews and what these mean.
Fourth Council of the Lateran, 1215, Rome.
Canon 67:
The more the Christians are restrained from the practice of usury, the more are they oppressed in this matter by the treachery of the Jews, so that in a short time they exhaust the resources of the Christians. Wishing, therefore, in this matter to protect the Christians against cruel oppression by the Jews, we ordain in this decree that if in the future under any pretext Jews extort from Christians oppressive and immoderate interest, the partnership of the Christians shall be denied them till they have made suitable satisfaction for their excesses.
Canon 68:
In some provinces a difference in dress distinguishes the Jews or Saracens [Muslims] from the Christians, but in certain others such a confusion has grown up that they cannot be distinguished by any difference. Thus it happens at times that through error Christians have relations with the women of Jews or Saracens, and Jews and Saracens with Christian women. Therefore, that they may not, under pretext of error of this sort, excuse themselves in the future for the excesses of such prohibited intercourse, we decree that such Jews and Saracens of both sexes in every Christian province and at all times shall be marked off in the eyes of the public from other peoples through the character of their dress.
Moreover, during the last three days before Easter and especially on Good Friday, they shall not go forth in public at all, for the reason that some of them on these very days, as we hear, do not blush to go forth better dressed and are not afraid to mock the Christians who maintain the memory of the most holy Passion by wearing signs of mourning.
Canon 69:
Since it is absurd that a blasphemer of Christ exercise authority over Christians, we on account of the boldness of transgressors renew in this general council what the Synod of Toledo (589) wisely enacted in this matter, prohibiting Jews from being given preference in the matter of public offices, since in such capacity they are most troublesome to the Christians. But if anyone should commit such an office to them, let him, after previous warning, be restrained by such punishment as seems proper by the provincial synod which we command to be celebrated every year. The official, however, shall be denied the commercial and other intercourse of the Christians, till in the judgment of the bishop all that he acquired from the Christians from the time he assumed office be restored for the needs of the Christian poor, and the office that he irreverently assumed let him lose with shame. The same we extend also to pagans.
Excerpts taken from: Hefele, Karl Joseph von and William R. Clark, A History of the Councils of the Church: From the Original Documents (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1895).
Conclusion
In conclusion, early origins of Anti-semitism in Christian theology, the Greco-Roman world and Egypt is evident. Paul was Jewish and made up the religion Christianity, which was once part of Judaism. Due to Christianity, they acknowledged their differences and alienated the Jews.
I hope this blog post has given you a further understanding of the definition and origins of Antisemitism.
Websites I used and recommend: